The Stories of Indian Theater
According to tradition, after Brahma had created the world, people everywhere experienced an age of prosperity. Unfortunately, eventually men turned away from their relationship with the divine. Divisions began to take precedence over similarities in this age, and strife and warfare began to appear on Earth. So, the all-encompassing godhead Brahman created the sexes, hoping that people would "make love, not war." But there was an unforeseen consequence: the nature of thought changed. Before, introspection had dominated, but now people were outwardly focused, intent on finding a lover. This other-focused thought, while helping to heal the divisions between humans, prevented them from effectively communing with the divine.
How was one to solve this dilemma? Removing love, now that people knew it, would just cause depression, or else lead to riots against the gods. But nor could people be left as they were, with no way to achieve moksha. The god Indra had an idea. E.P. Horrwitz tells us that Indra approached the creation deity, saying, "O Brahma, we wish to feast our eyes and ears on a dramatic spectacle; deign to create the merry play for our enjoyment." Brahma considered his request, falling into a deep meditative state. He had to determine if this would solve the crisis.
After a period of intense thought, Brahma consented to Indra, and outlined the basic tenets of Indian theater. Each has its origin in a different Veda. From the Rig Veda, the oldest, comes dance. The Rig Veda consists of hymns in praise of the various Hindu gods, including the early elemental gods. The Yajur Veda gives Hindu theater the concept of mimesis; originally, it described rituals and ceremonies. The Sâma Veda added accompaniment to the words of the Rig Veda hymns, thus giving Indian theater its musical aspect. Finally, the Atharva Veda, which detailed magical incantations and rituals, contributed the dramatic aspect of excitement and passion. So, we can say the four basic tenets of Indian theater are movement, mimicry, music, and mirth, as codified in the Nâtyashastra, or the Nâtya Veda. These elements, if implemented correctly, were believed to lead to dharma, wealth, love, and moksha.
Soon after these foundations were established, Brahma commissioned that Vishwakarma, his architect, build a stage. After its construction, the sage Bhârata became the first theater manager, writing down his lists of rules for theater in the Bhârata Sûtras—texts so influential that, as Bellinger and Horrwitz remark, even the most famous playwright treated them as law. In the end, in contrast to the Christian God, Brahma solved the crisis of humanity’s evil by creation, not destruction.
This is the mythical story, but the real story, while perhaps less idyllic, provides an otherwise easily neglected glance at early Hindu life and rituals. According to E. P. Horrwitz, the true origins of Indian theater lie in "the ancient custom of reciting the national poetry at social and religious gatherings." The Mahâ-bharâtâ Epic, one of the most popular texts at these recitations, was so long that it required several weeks per reading. While the attending royalty could put up with the high volume of archaic Sanskrit, the common patron could not, necessitating translators. As Bellinger and Horrwitz tell us, Sanskrit eventually gave way to the common tongue of Prâkrit except during especially sacred scenes, with the translator now mostly taking over the recitation. Music and acting started to become a regular part of the readings, which attracted greater crowds and cheers, and recitations became plays.
During these years, each performance would open and close with a prayer to Vedic gods. Scripts came from the Epics and the stories of the gods, such as the previously mentioned Mahâ-bhârata, which the playwright Kâlidâsa adapted into the play Sakuntala. Bellinger mentions that some consider it the “most beautiful play in the world." According to Horrwitz, during these formative years, "the Mahâ-bharâtâ and Ramayana supplied no end of subjects, even as the Bible was the inexhaustable [sic] source of the mysteries and miracle plays in medieval Europe. Indeed, originally the Prâkrit Sanvâdas [early dramas] were mysteries too, either Krishna or Shiva acting and dancing the principal part."
Other stories dealt with more philosophical issues on the way to moksha, such as The Rise of the Moon of Knowledge (whose exact date of composition is unknown), in which the anthropomorphized ideals of Will, Reason, Envy, and others take form and interact. But even though connected to the abstract, Indian theater was not initially fancy: actors wore plain clothes, and sets were a rarity; characters would simply announce their location when relevant. Performers did not cast away the elements of everyday life for special rituals. Life already was divine.
These two accounts, though sometimes conflicting, reveal how closely linked religion and entertainment were in early, everyday Indian life. Audiences gathered to hear not the stories of ordinary people, but the stories of divine actors; and they gathered not to hear a pomp-and-circumstance rendition of holy texts with reverence and humility, but rather to experience a visceral celebration of both the physical and divine aspects of life. Art was not merely a diversion from “higher” pursuits, but an essential part of the quest to shuffle off this mortal coil. By attending a play, one could focus on the stories of the gods, drawing closer to the deities in order to achieve moksha. The union of the here-and-now of live performance and the then-and-there of both the past Epics and future moksha played a large role in Hindu religion and Indian culture, an aspect of both still reflected in newer (though no less legitimate) forms of art in modern Indian society.
Sources:
Image from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_India
Bellinger, Martha F. “The Drama of India.” A Short History of the Drama. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1927. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
Horrwitz, E. P. "The Origin of the Hindu Drama." The Indian Theater: A Brief History of Sanskrit Drama. London: Blackie and Son Ltd., 1912. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
"Indian Theater." IndiaNetZone. N.p., 21 July 2007. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
"Vedas and Natya." The Narasimha Academy of Arts. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
How was one to solve this dilemma? Removing love, now that people knew it, would just cause depression, or else lead to riots against the gods. But nor could people be left as they were, with no way to achieve moksha. The god Indra had an idea. E.P. Horrwitz tells us that Indra approached the creation deity, saying, "O Brahma, we wish to feast our eyes and ears on a dramatic spectacle; deign to create the merry play for our enjoyment." Brahma considered his request, falling into a deep meditative state. He had to determine if this would solve the crisis.
After a period of intense thought, Brahma consented to Indra, and outlined the basic tenets of Indian theater. Each has its origin in a different Veda. From the Rig Veda, the oldest, comes dance. The Rig Veda consists of hymns in praise of the various Hindu gods, including the early elemental gods. The Yajur Veda gives Hindu theater the concept of mimesis; originally, it described rituals and ceremonies. The Sâma Veda added accompaniment to the words of the Rig Veda hymns, thus giving Indian theater its musical aspect. Finally, the Atharva Veda, which detailed magical incantations and rituals, contributed the dramatic aspect of excitement and passion. So, we can say the four basic tenets of Indian theater are movement, mimicry, music, and mirth, as codified in the Nâtyashastra, or the Nâtya Veda. These elements, if implemented correctly, were believed to lead to dharma, wealth, love, and moksha.
Soon after these foundations were established, Brahma commissioned that Vishwakarma, his architect, build a stage. After its construction, the sage Bhârata became the first theater manager, writing down his lists of rules for theater in the Bhârata Sûtras—texts so influential that, as Bellinger and Horrwitz remark, even the most famous playwright treated them as law. In the end, in contrast to the Christian God, Brahma solved the crisis of humanity’s evil by creation, not destruction.
This is the mythical story, but the real story, while perhaps less idyllic, provides an otherwise easily neglected glance at early Hindu life and rituals. According to E. P. Horrwitz, the true origins of Indian theater lie in "the ancient custom of reciting the national poetry at social and religious gatherings." The Mahâ-bharâtâ Epic, one of the most popular texts at these recitations, was so long that it required several weeks per reading. While the attending royalty could put up with the high volume of archaic Sanskrit, the common patron could not, necessitating translators. As Bellinger and Horrwitz tell us, Sanskrit eventually gave way to the common tongue of Prâkrit except during especially sacred scenes, with the translator now mostly taking over the recitation. Music and acting started to become a regular part of the readings, which attracted greater crowds and cheers, and recitations became plays.
During these years, each performance would open and close with a prayer to Vedic gods. Scripts came from the Epics and the stories of the gods, such as the previously mentioned Mahâ-bhârata, which the playwright Kâlidâsa adapted into the play Sakuntala. Bellinger mentions that some consider it the “most beautiful play in the world." According to Horrwitz, during these formative years, "the Mahâ-bharâtâ and Ramayana supplied no end of subjects, even as the Bible was the inexhaustable [sic] source of the mysteries and miracle plays in medieval Europe. Indeed, originally the Prâkrit Sanvâdas [early dramas] were mysteries too, either Krishna or Shiva acting and dancing the principal part."
Other stories dealt with more philosophical issues on the way to moksha, such as The Rise of the Moon of Knowledge (whose exact date of composition is unknown), in which the anthropomorphized ideals of Will, Reason, Envy, and others take form and interact. But even though connected to the abstract, Indian theater was not initially fancy: actors wore plain clothes, and sets were a rarity; characters would simply announce their location when relevant. Performers did not cast away the elements of everyday life for special rituals. Life already was divine.
These two accounts, though sometimes conflicting, reveal how closely linked religion and entertainment were in early, everyday Indian life. Audiences gathered to hear not the stories of ordinary people, but the stories of divine actors; and they gathered not to hear a pomp-and-circumstance rendition of holy texts with reverence and humility, but rather to experience a visceral celebration of both the physical and divine aspects of life. Art was not merely a diversion from “higher” pursuits, but an essential part of the quest to shuffle off this mortal coil. By attending a play, one could focus on the stories of the gods, drawing closer to the deities in order to achieve moksha. The union of the here-and-now of live performance and the then-and-there of both the past Epics and future moksha played a large role in Hindu religion and Indian culture, an aspect of both still reflected in newer (though no less legitimate) forms of art in modern Indian society.
Sources:
Image from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_India
Bellinger, Martha F. “The Drama of India.” A Short History of the Drama. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1927. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
Horrwitz, E. P. "The Origin of the Hindu Drama." The Indian Theater: A Brief History of Sanskrit Drama. London: Blackie and Son Ltd., 1912. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
"Indian Theater." IndiaNetZone. N.p., 21 July 2007. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
"Vedas and Natya." The Narasimha Academy of Arts. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
